Lead–acid batteries have been used for energy storage in utility applications for many years but it has only been in recent years that the demand for battery energy storage has increased.
Improvements to lead battery technology have increased cycle life both in deep and shallow cycle applications. Li-ion and other battery types used for energy storage will be discussed to show that lead batteries are technically and economically effective. The sustainability of lead batteries is superior to other battery types.
A selection of larger lead battery energy storage installations are analysed and lessons learned identied. Lead is the most efcientlyrecycled commodity fi fi metal and lead batteries are the only battery energy storage system that is almost completely recycled, with over 99% of lead batteries being collected and recycled in Europe and USA.
Compared to a lead-acid battery, a lithium-ion battery is more expensive but offers better performance. Its high power density allows for charging and discharging with high current, and it is more environmentally friendly with no pollution. However, the construction of a hydrogen supply system for lithium-ion batteries is lagging behind.
Each battery is grid connected through a dedicated 630 kW inverter. The lead–acid batteries are both tubular types, one flooded with lead-plated expanded copper mesh negative grids and the other a VRLA battery with gelled electrolyte.
Battery storage is used mainly for high-power applications, such as emergency power, battery cars, and power plant surplus energy storage. Small power occasions can also use it for rechargeable dry batteries, including nickel-hydrogen batteries and lithium-ion batteries.