Zinc-based batteries are rechargeable, using zinc as the anode material. During discharge, zinc atoms oxidize, releasing zinc ions that travel through the electrolyte to the cathode, where they are reduced and incorporated into the cathode structure. Electrons released during oxidation generate electricity by flowing through an external circuit.
The zinc-ion batteries’ electrolytes can be either nonaqueous or aqueous, giving them a wide range to choose from. When it comes to the cathode, manganese, vanadium, and organic-based cathodes are often used, and among them, manganese-based cathodes are the most promising (Ming et al. 2019).
Zinc-based batteries face several challenges, including limited cycle life, rate capability, and scalability. For instance, aqueous electrolytes can cause dendrite formation—needle-like zinc structures that accumulate on the anode during cycling—damaging the battery and reducing its rate capability and lifespan.
Unlike lithium batteries applying highly flammable organic electrolytes, the flammability and explosive problems can be greatly addressed in aqueous zinc-ion batteries using water as the electrolyte solvent.
Numerous types of zinc-based batteries like nickel-zinc/aqueous zinc batteries, alkaline manganese dioxide/zinc batteries, silver-zinc batteries, zinc-air batteries, and zinc-ion batteries are now being used for various applications (Biton et al. 2017; Li et al. 2019; Ming et al. 2019; Parker et al. 2017; Yan et al. 2014).
Moreover, large redox potential of Zn equal to − 0.763 V against standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), avoidance of zinc dendrites, huge volumetric energy density, and long life cycle are also an additional features of zinc-ion batteries .