The term advanced or carbon-enhanced (LC) lead batteries is used because in addition to standard lead–acid batteries, in the last two decades, devices with an integral supercapacitor function have been developed.
Lead–acid batteries may be flooded or sealed valve-regulated (VRLA) types and the grids may be in the form of flat pasted plates or tubular plates. The various constructions have different technical performance and can be adapted to particular duty cycles. Batteries with tubular plates offer long deep cycle lives.
Improvements to lead battery technology have increased cycle life both in deep and shallow cycle applications. Li-ion and other battery types used for energy storage will be discussed to show that lead batteries are technically and economically effective. The sustainability of lead batteries is superior to other battery types.
Batteries use 85% of the lead produced worldwide and recycled lead represents 60% of total lead production. Lead–acid batteries are easily broken so that lead-containing components may be separated from plastic containers and acid, all of which can be recovered.
Lead–acid batteries have been used for energy storage in utility applications for many years but it has only been in recent years that the demand for battery energy storage has increased.
The competitive position between lead batteries and other types of battery indicates that lead batteries are competitive in technical performance in static installations. Table 2 provides a summary of the key parameters for lead–acid and Li-ion batteries.