Rare and/or expensive battery materials are unsuitable for widespread practical application, and an alternative has to be found for the currently prevalent lithium-ion battery technology. In this review article, we discuss the current state-of-the-art of battery materials from a perspective that focuses on the renewable energy market pull.
Stable nature, but decomposition produces HF gas, causing fluoride pollution. The degradation process of batteries is complex and influenced by internal chemical changes and external environmental factors during storage and transportation (Fang et al., 2023).
Most existing LIBs use aluminum for the mixed-metal oxide cathode and copper for the graphite anode, with the exception of lithium titanate (Li4Ti5, LTO) which uses aluminum for both . The cathode materials are typically abbreviated to three letters, which then become the descriptors of the battery itself.
6.1.1. Graphite Graphite is perhaps one of the most successful and attractive battery materials found to date. Not only is it a highly abundant material, but it also helps to avoid dendrite formation and the high reactivity of alkali metal anodes.
The cathode material in a waste lithium-ion battery is hydrophilic, whereas the anode material is hydrophobic. This characteristic provides a theoretical foundation for the flotation separation process of waste lithium-ion battery materials.
At present, battery material recycling methods mainly include pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, bio-metallurgy, and physical recycling [ 294 ]. Table 6 lists the advantages and disadvantages of the above four methods.