Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have become a hot topic worldwide because they are not only the best alternative for energy storage systems but also have the potential for developing electric vehicles (EVs) that support greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction and pollution prevention in the transport sector.
Regarding the management of spent EV batteries, there is no specific legislation on EoL battery management in Viet Nam, the e-bikes and e-motorbikes use lead batteries, and the electric vehicle’s batteries are LIBs. Both batteries were defined as hazardous waste (HW) according to Vietnamese legislation, such as Circular no. 36/2015/TT-BTNMT .
Due to battery expirations or end-of-life, LIBs must be managed properly to avoid environmental damage and recover valuable metals in the battery. The hydrometallurgy and pyrometallurgy systems for LIBs have been suggested and applied in some areas of the US [109, 110].
Global LIB trade in 2017–2019 showed that in the top five importer countries for over 51% of all imports worldwide, the U.S. imported 44% of the LIBs, while they are also exporters of lithium-ion batteries of 16% .
LIBs have been developed as energy storage for the transport sector and renewable energy systems. Basically, a LIB consists of two cell electrodes, an anode and a cathode, and the main source of active Li-ions in a battery is the positive electrode (cathode). Based on the cathode materials, LIBs can be classified into different types, such as:
Since LIBs have a longer lifespan than other types of batteries and possess higher densities of power compared with traditional battery technology, they are the first choice for consumers and manufacturers when considering applicability and efficiency.
Instead of using a liquid electrolyte, like in lithium-ion batteries, lithium polymer batteries use a solid or gel-like polymer electrolyte. This is introduced into the cell, ensuring that it permeates all parts of the electrodes and separator. Sealing …