Modern technologies used in the sea, the poles, or aerospace require reliable batteries with outstanding performance at temperatures below zero degrees. However, commercially available lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) show significant performance degradation under low-temperature (LT) conditions.
The formed CEI successfully prevents transition metal ion dissolution and electrolyte decomposition leading to the improved low temperature performance. Lithium difluoro (oxalate)borate (LiDFOB) is another well-known lithium salt used for improving low temperature battery characteristics .
Last but not the least, battery testing protocols at low temperatures must not be overlooked, taking into account the real conditions in practice where the battery, in most cases, is charged at room temperature and only discharged at low temperatures depending on the field of application.
The operation of Li-metal batteries (LMBs) at low temperatures is still confronted with a series of problems associated with not only bulk electrolytes but also electrolyte-derived electrolyte/electrode interphases [5, 6, 7, 8].
The increased resistance at low temperatures is believed to be mainly associated with the changed migration behavior of Li + at each battery component, including electrolyte, electrodes, and electrode-electrolyte interphases [21, 26].
For potential applications in satellites, space probes, and submarine missions—all requiring reliable battery performance in extremely cold environments—the stable operation of LIBs at low temperatures is of paramount importance.