Estimates of energy use for lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery cell manufacturing show substantial variation, contributing to disagreements regarding the environmental benefits of large-scale deployment of electric mobility and other battery applications.
Based on cost and energy density considerations, lithium iron phosphate batteries, a subset of lithium-ion batteries, are still the preferred choice for grid-scale storage.
The range of lithium content in the transport sector (Transp) varies from 9 kg per kWh for a plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV) to 15 kg for battery electric vehicles (BEV) and 200 kg for an E-bus battery. Batteries for small electronics (CE) i.e., cell phone and laptops contain 12gr and 58gr of LCE respectively. Data based on (Mackenzie2017)
Around 0.75 Mt LCE is accounted for by carbonate demand and 1.25 Mt LCE by hydroxide demand for a total of 2 Mt LCE demand in 2030. This outcome depends on EV growth and battery technology assumptions, as high nickel cathode batteries require lithium hydroxide while lithium iron phosphate batteries require lithium carbonate.
CATL plans to continue developing its standalone sodium-ion battery for electric vehicles, with the goal of increasing its energy density from the current 160 Watt-hours (Wh) per kilo to 200 Wh/kg. This battery would be heavier or will have a lower drive range – today’s Li-ion batteries have an estimated energy density of 250 Wh/kg (Houser, 2021).
Demand of Lithium Carbonate Equivalent (LCE) by sectors. The amount of lithium content in batteries is important for the dynamics of lithium demand. The range of lithium content in the transport sector (Transp) varies from 9 kg per kWh for a plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV) to 15 kg for battery electric vehicles (BEV) and 200 kg for an E-bus battery.